Internationalisation and the European Nation State Essay

Question 1 It is undeniable that the state of world affairs has dramatically evolved since the end of the Second World War. More specifically, the surge of development in IT has been the chief reason that our world has become less a mosaic of nation-states and more a melting pot of societies, cultures, and associations whereby nation-states are inevitably bound to trans-national phenomena. As Cox notes, â€Å"globalization [generates] a more complex multi-level world political system, which implicitly challenges the old Westphalian assumption that ‘a state is a state is a state'† (Cox, in Pierson, p.181). This work shall support this notion of globalization by highlighting two problems from Pierson, namely decreased anarchy in the global political arena, and the influence of the global economy on nation-states. These issues will be defined and then discussed in relation to Lindensjà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s conceptions of Realist democracy and Communitarian democracy respectively. Decreased anarchy refers to the marginalization of the autonomy of nation-states in the international order. The growing interdependence between nations across the globe has resulted in a redirection of respective national interests towards the sphere of global rather than domestic (Pierson 174). What this means for realist democracy is a skewed orientation of political candidates; they become no longer dedicated to domestic issues but those of an international nature instead. The problem with this lies in the fact that the success of the Realist democratic concept (in Lindensjà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s view) is dependent upon the competition of political leaders to win approval (via votes) from the citizens. There is a problem if politicians win a seat in office with a platform claiming to be ‘for the people,’ and then redirect their interests after election to the international sphere. The welfare of the citizens is left on the sidelines in place of external issues, and the fruits of Realist democracy are not enjoyed by the people who voted for it, thus the legitimacy of the democratic process diminishes. This is especially a danger in realist democracy since representation by political actors replaces active participation by the citizens; â€Å"[Realist democracy] thus does not entail, cannot entail, governance by the people in a real sense. It can only entail the people having the possibility to accept or reject pretenders, i.e. elect those that govern† (Lindensjà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 3). These elected representatives, are in turn subjected to a political framework where, â€Å"†¦international institutions, conventions and regimes moderate the extent to which inter-state relations can be conceived as genuinely and ‘actively’ anarchic† (Pierson 175). Thus, the validity of Realist democracy is compromised seeing as though anarchy is its cornerstone. Similarly, Communitarian democracy is also restricted by the over-arching nature of the international order. Lindensjà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s conception of Communitarian democracy requires nations to be able to pursue interests in a collective manner, with its citizens as an intrinsic part of the democracy (Lindensjà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 11). There is a great emphasis placed on compromise – a sort of give and take to realize the maximum of individual ideals in a collective manner. This sort of idyllic outlook on forming a democratic community would be difficult to practice even in the small, cohesive communities of Ancient Greece. The decreased anarchy of the international order today magnifies the difficulty of assimilating different people, groups, and ideas under a collective banner. To imagine what Lindensjà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ refers to as a ‘homelike community’ seems like a far stretch seeing that an increasingly interdependent world melds such a sheer mass of different people, outlooks, and traditions. The scale of interdependency in today’s world most certainly underpins the ‘homelike’ values necessary for effective Communitarian democracy especially where individuals’ interests are drawn outside the domestic sphere. Perhaps the most influential factor working against the Westphalian concept of global politics is the nature of modern global markets. Today, domestic economies cannot escape the forces of the international economy (Pierson 171). As Cox notes, â€Å"†¦economic globalization has placed constraints upon the autonomy of states and, increasingly, states must become the instruments for adjusting national economic activities to the exigencies of the global economy† (Cox, in Pierson 179). This excerpt makes a direct reference to a lessening of state autonomy due to global economies. For this reason, it is clear that Realist democracy is challenged by the world’s economy and market forces that compromise autonomy. The economic implications of globalization mirror those associated with decreased anarchy; for example, if economic reforms are made to comply with the international system, this results in states focusing on international economic policies over domestic ones. The working class will most certainly lose out to those who hold political positions – the elites, who will mold economic reforms around the international order and, more often than not, their own interests. For Communitarian democracies, global economics impedes the possibility of creating cohesive and collective communities. With economic concerns subjected to the influences of global markets, Communitarian democracies cannot set there own economic agenda. Moreover, the Communitarian ideal of setting a collective goal as to what the ‘good life’ should be is nearly impossible since the international economic order infiltrates domestic affairs. As Pierson notes, â€Å"In practice, state organizations have multiple points of interaction with both domestic and trans-national actors and these interactions are very far from disclosing a single and unified will† (Pierson 185). By imposing an influence on states, global market forces combat the Communitarian ideal of forming a collective vision of the ‘good life.’ Chapter 8 of Holden, entitled The United Nations as an agency of global democracy (Falk) and Chapter 10, Global civil society and the democratic prospect (Archibugi, Balduini, Donati) both focus on the idea of strengthening and broadening the influence of civil society to combat (what Falk refers to as) globalization-from-above. The Archibugi, Balduini, and Donati text focuses on the Agenda proposed by Boutros Boutros-Ghali, which in turn places a large focus on the democratization of the international community as the key to better international relations. The Realist conception of democracy would embrace this sort of change. With a system that provides â€Å"a relevant representation of society† and de-monopolizes intergovernmental relations as the sole means of international relations, the citizenry of the world will realize a new possibility to voice concerns on an international level (Archibugi et al, in Holden 137). For people in Realist democracies this means that political involvement that was once only a mere ‘handing-over of power’ to a representative is now a legitimate voice to be heard beyond the confines of the state. An important feature of Ghali’s vision was the creation of UN Regional Organizations that would cater to civil society and make civil interests a higher priority. Falk’s concept of stronger social activism (globalization-from-below) to combat global market forces (globalization-from-above) would assist the Communitarian goal of correcting the growing imbalance between private and public goods (Falk, in Holden 163,173). Communitarians would support the equalizing aspects of this arrangement since it would contribute better to the philosophy of allowing a community to form its objectives without external influences. For Falk, the reformation of states to find a better balance, â€Å"†¦between the logic of capital and priorities of its peoples† is paramount in the effort to promote more effective democracy. In both the Communitarian and Realist views, a reform of the international political order in this manner would be a step in the right direction. BIBLIOGRAPHY Goldmann, Kjell, 2001. Transforming the European Nation-State. London: Sage Publications. Holden, Barry (ed.), 2000. Global Democracy. London: Routledge. Pierson, Christopher, 1996. The Modern State. London: Routledge. Stevenson, Nick, 1999. The Transformation of the Media: Globalization, Morality, and Ethics. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education Limited. Swedish Government, 2002. The Swedish Government’s EU Policy Goals for 2002.

International law Essay

International law can be divided into two main branches; public international law and private international law. According to Corel University Law School, Legal Information Institute; public international law, oversees matters of rights between nations and citizens or subjects of other nations whereas, the latter deals with conflicts between private individuals arising out of circumstances of key importance to more than one nation. Over time the line between private and public international laws has been growing thinner with issues of private international law now linking with those of public international law. This is because the international community finds many matters of private international law of significance to them. In a nutshell, international law governs human actions and interactions at the global heights. For a long time since its inception in the 16th Century, international law consisted of policies and regulations governing interactions between nations until recently when the law was redefined to incorporate relations between states and individuals as well as relation between international institutions. International law has received its share of criticism with the emergence of a school of thought holding that it was mechanism designed by developed countries purposefully for colonization in the modern world. In his book; Imperialism, Sovereignty and the making of International Law Anghie argues that â€Å"the colonial confrontation was central to the formation of international law and, in particular, it’s founding concept, sovereignty. He goes ahead to argue that international law is a modern way of governing non-European people, that economic exploitations and cultural erosion that resulted from the same were strategically important for the discipline. Contrary to Anghie’s thinking, international law would otherwise be a benevolent undertaking had it not been demonized by powerful states to achieve 21st century colonialism. The concept of international law obviously conflicts with the fundamentals of sovereignty which also means independence. This is to say that a sovereign state should be free to run its domestic affairs free from hindrances by outside authority. The proponents of international law may have worked on the assumptions that the sovereignty of a state is not only founded on the self-governing will of its sovereign, but also on its position in relationship to several other states. This implies that if a certain country comes up with policies which are likely to affect its neighbors or other countries then its sovereignty can be subject to violation when international law intervenes. Nonetheless, the general belief is that a state should be able to do whatever it pleases within its territories. It is important to mention that sovereignty of a state means it is free to use its resources for its own prosperity without interference from outside powers. However, developed states have in many occasions meddled in the economic affairs of third world states. It is by right that a third world states control all that is within their territories without interference from developed countries. International law, through international business law paves way for exploitation of third world countries by their developed counterparts. Interdependence is a word strategically coined by developed states to cover up for their deeply buried conspiracy aimed at reaping resources from developed countries under the cover of globalisation. Hopefully, out of their own efforts, third world states may eventually grow to the level of being powerful. In the contrary, world super powers are not stupid to let third world countries grow to be as powerful as them. Because of this insecurity, they invent laws and lie to third world states that it is for the good of the world when the underpinning motive is to increase dependence by developing countries on the world powers. Even if these countries develop, they will be under control of developed states. A good example is the claim by developed countries in favor of their investors on foreign territories. The claim by capital-exporting countries is intended to limit a country’s sovereignty to impose limitations on foreign investors (Sornarajah 136). This may sound as a generous thought to open up equal playing grounds for signatories of international law. However, consider the fact that capital-exporting countries are the world superpowers hosting numerous billionaire investors just looking for places to multiply their billions. Some of these multibillion businesses are state owned corporations. With this kind of law, the world powers will establish multibillion corporations in third world territories in the pretext of privately owned investments. They will offer employment opportunities, good health facilities, education, housing, infrastructure to millions of natives of third world states. Because most third world governments are unable to offer basic needs for their populace, these international corporations will win the hearts of many in third world states. Although political rule will be retained by the hosting governments, such multibillion corporations will have unprecedented control not only over citizens whom they will have won their trust, but also over government policy decisions. By that time, third world states will be literally foreign territories of developed states. Of course a few rich individuals from developing countries will have benefited from this law and established businesses in developed countries. However, because their native governments will be lacking both economic and political powers, their activities will be highly controlled by the host governments keeping them from making any breakthroughs. This treaty might also limit a state’s ability to use domestic legal facilities on foreign investors who break the law since they will be under protection of international law. This is based on the belief that any grievance against an investor operating under international law is an injury to his native country. International law therefore was only formed with the excuse of interdependence between signatory states with the hidden purpose to reintroduce a modern style of Colonialism being witnessed today. In the modern world, economic sovereignty is paramount to any form of sovereignty. Political sovereignty in the 21st century is worthless without economic independence. It is because of this that developed countries continue to come up with selfish policies with the excuse of interdependence. For this reason most third world countries brag of political independence but when they cannot provide for their citizens, they seek shelter from the economic giants who do not offer anything without conditions. Developed countries will always do this through economic sanctions such as freezing donor aid which when implemented cripples the operations of third world states. Nye states that although the potential for benefits in interdependence exist, the potential for tragedy exists as well (179). Nye goes to the extreme to refer to the negative results of interdependence not merely as losses, which would be the opposite of benefits, but tragedy. Tragedy can also be a disaster, catastrophe or misfortune. The after effects of a disaster are usually devastating and repairing the mess requires extraordinary measures usually taking a longer period of time. The shocking thing is that whereas developing countries are obeying international law, developed countries can violate it and get away with it. Israel has been in the headlines for many years over Gaza strip conflict with Palestine’s. The attacks have led to serious violation of human rights and international law. Atrocities committed along Gaza Strip are worrying and one would wonder why Israel is being excused from war crimes trials. Up to date, the international judges still seem to be wondering if Israel has committed enough crimes to be subjected to trials. On the other hand, the United States of America reciprocated against Afghanistan after the September 11th attacks on America’s soil and many innocent lives were lost. Most worrying is human rights violations by US soldiers against war prisoners and terrorist suspects at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp. In 2001, hundreds of Taliban prisoners of war were suffocated to death after they were imprisoned inside metal containers by US military in the Afghan town of Kunduz. Instead of being charged with human rights violations, the world superpower arrested Saddam Hussein and had him hanged to death for war crime charges during his regime. Meanwhile the international law is in full force in developing countries. International Criminal Court (ICC) has issued a warrant of arrest against Sudan’s re-elected leader Omar alBshir over war crime related charges. Currently, the ICC is also investigating human rights violations during the 2007 post election chaos in Kenya and is expected to take in suspects by September 2010. Efforts by the ICC to arrest perpetrators of violence are all in good faith, but how about the rich countries which commit the same crimes? Whereas it will be extremely difficult for a country which has cut off itself from the rest of the world, international law deprives nations from exercising their sovereignty within their territories with respect to the locally prevailing circumstances. The international law in large part works in favor of the developed countries and does not result in the desired interdependence which will empower weak nations. Nations should be empowered to be able to independently and decisively handle their economic, political and legal activities without interference from outside forces which may not understand the prevailing circumstances. It is only when they are empowered that they will be able to have the bargaining power which is critical for interdependence at the international level.

Alpha Plantations and Major Crisis in 1999 Term Paper - 1

Alpha Plantations and Major Crisis in 1999 - Term Paper Example The oil palm company Alpha Plantations Sdn Bhd in Malaysia has two major divisions namely Oil Palm Estate and Palm Oil Mills. This company is owned by a British Company and aims to supply oil to the parent company’s detergent manufacturing business. The company employs local workers to meet the workforce needs. The mill carries out its operations in a shift based environment with three shifts employing 25 works per shift. Supervisors are appointed to watch over the work of each shift. Among the most senior members of the company is Mr. Ang. He is working in the company since 1965 and has achieved the designation of the senior production supervisor through constant efforts and struggles. Mr. Ang is supposedly experienced in dealing with almost every situation surrounded by the company’s premises. He deals with the workers, solves their normal issues, is responsible for the undisrupted operations of the business, involved in the coordination of shift planning, responsible for the preparation of daily production reports, sets short-term performance targets for the shifts and also helps in Human Resource Planning issues. He also acts as a ‘Gatekeeper’ which directs towards his important role as an assistant to the mill manager and every issue comes into his supervision before it reaches the mill manager. Owing to the multitasking and untiring efforts of Mr. Ang, the mill manager is quite satisfied and contented with the firm, methodical and almost militarily efficient way of running the business. The year 1999 acted as a devastating experience for Alpha mills. The basic reason behind the deteriorated financial performance was the cut off in the oil prices. The mill manager, Captain Chubb, could not find a better way to overcome the situation and restrain the regular losses. Captain Chubb was replaced by Mr. Ian Davison who was appointed as a new mill manager to Alpha mills.

Comparison between financial engineering and Islamic financial Essay

Comparison between financial engineering and Islamic financial engineering and is financial engineering support the banks and financial company in the credit crunch - Essay Example El-Gamal has pointed out that Islamic financial jurisprudence has aimed at enhancing human welfare but transaction costs have been substantially reduced rendering contract-based jurisprudence incoherent (2007, p. 1). El-Gamal (2007) provides a basis for Islamic financial engineering aiming for an Islamic law compliant as well as legal risk compliant financial instruments. An authority on the Islamic financial system is the Islamic Financial Services Board (IFSB) based in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The Islamic Financial Services Board is an international standard-setting organization that seeks to promote stability of the Islamic financial services industry by issuing standards and guiding principles (IFSB 2009, p. 1). The member central banks/countries of the IFSB include Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, Bahrain, Iran, the Islamic Development Bank, Pakistan, Qatar, Singapore, Sudan, and the United Arab Emirates. A key dimension of Islamic financial services pertains to Shari-ah governance. Unfortunately, according to IFSB documents (2009, p. 1), Shari-ah governance, despite being an often used word within the Islamic financial service institutions (IFSI), has never been â€Å"properly† defined. Nevertheless, Shari-ah governance is deemed to have been realized when a Shari-ah board believes so (IFSB 2009, p.1). El-Gamal (2003, p. 4), however, associates the Shari-ah with the Islamic Law. Following El-Gamal, Shari-ah compliance is therefore compliance with Islamic Law as judgment of competent authorities of the Shari-ah or the Islamic Laws. Gait and Worthington (2007, p. 27) clarified, however, that the main sources of the Shari-ah law are the Qu’ran, Hadith, Sunna, Ijma, Qiyas and Ijtihad. According to the latest available IFSB (2009) document on the Shari-ah, the Shari-ah board is usually composed of scholars on the Shari-ah (alternatively known as the Shari-ah Committee or the Shari-ah Supervisory Board) but the practice over the years is

Treating and Preventing Pressure Ulcers Article

Treating and Preventing Pressure Ulcers - Article Example The original review found no studies that would meet the inclusion criteria and that there was no statistically significant difference among groups in terms of pressure ulcer incidence. Further evaluation and studies need to be conducted regarding the effectiveness of risk assessment tools. The randomized controlled trial was utilized as the design of the study. Methods include were the Braden pressure ulcer risk assessment tool and training, unstructured risk assessment and training, and unstructured risk assessment alone. The population included 256 people randomized by ward into three groups. The strengths of the study included the focus made on resolving biases such as sequence generation, allocation concealment, blinding, incomplete outcome data, selective outcome reporting, and extreme baseline imbalance. Limitations of the study include methodological limitations that prevent firm conclusions and unavailability of high-quality RCT evidence. The article of Jaul (2010) discussed the pathogenesis of pressure ulcer development in the elderly (p. 311). Elderly were assessed in terms of comorbidities, risk factor, and management of pressure ulcers.The review found out the pressure ulcers were common problems of elderly in all types of healthcare settings. Immobility, nutritional deficiency, chronic diseases, and multisystem dysfunction predispose the elderly to the development of pressure ulcers. Factors related to the overall health status of the patients and the management done by health care practitioners affect the development and treatment of pressure ulcers. The article is primarily a review; no research design stated. Methods employed were the review of literature and studies. There was no specific population stated but elderly in general. The vast majority of literature and studies were the strengths of the article. Limitations focused only on review of the risk factor, wound, pathogenesis, and management of pressure ulcers.

Rhetolical analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Rhetolical analysis - Essay Example ill go down in history as the greatest demonstration for freedom in the history of our nation.† Although some paid little attention to his words, his speech perpetually constituted civil rights in the souls of majority of Americans (Leff and Kauffeld 181). King’ speech had a way of persuading the American people with powerful words, in fact, he remains to be one of the world’s greatest orators. In his deliberative speech, he notably uses Ethos, Logos and Pathos to convince Americans that racism and discrimination was not the way to go to achieve the American Dream. King’s uses figures of speech to stress certain words. For example, the use of inversion and anaphora stresses the aim and main points in his speech. He states that â€Å"one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languished in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land.† He also uses experience and metaphors to show his audience what discrimination and racism has done to the American society. His own experience is incorporated in the speech when he says that â€Å"I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their charac ter.† And metaphors when he says that â€Å"Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which has come back marked "insufficient funds." To bring authority to his speech and project that he is worth listening to, King uses Lincoln who is a respectable figure, the American Constitutionan and God. In his analogy of Lincoln, he states that â€Å"Five score years ago, a great American, in

Assessment of Supply Chain Improvement Statistics Project

Assessment of Supply Chain Improvement - Statistics Project Example The dangers in using predictive models are in the quality of input assumption. If we underestimated our lawmakers and their willingness to impose import tariff for scooter imports from China is 70% and not 30% this would change the result in favour of production in Scotland as it would suggest that the result expressed as daily profit for outsourcing to China would come to only Ã…  425,33 which is less than Ã…  453,33. The simplicity with which I checked the result under changed assumption may be considered as one of advantages of EMV modeling approach. The same goes for all other assumptions like sales probability prediction. In original scenario I would recommend that everything for Milton Keynes be made in Manchester. I would recommend that Toulouse makes as much as possible for Paris and Madrid and Stuttgart to fill in where Toulouse can not deliver for Paris and Madrid. It turns out that Toulouse does not make Professional model so it should make more profitable Weekender and less profitable De Luxe model. From available material Toulouse can make 1500 sets of Weekender and 100 sets of De Luxe model. Limitations are available steel and aluminum. Toulouse makes â‚ ¬ 297.700 in profits. Stuttgart would be able to make Professional and De Luxe models but not Weekender so available materials there allow for production of 400 Professional sets for Paris and 200 professional sets for Madrid as well as 1000 De Luxe sets for Madrid and 900 De Luxe sets for Paris. Stuttgart makes â‚ ¬ 411.700 in profits. ... It turns out that Toulouse does not make Professional model so it should make more profitable Weekender and less profitable De Luxe model. From available material Toulouse can make 1500 sets of Weekender and 100 sets of De Luxe model. Limitations are available steel and aluminum. Toulouse makes â‚ ¬ 297.700 in profits. Stuttgart would be able to make Professional and De Luxe models but not Weekender so available materials there allow for production of 400 Professional sets for Paris and 200 professional sets for Madrid as well as 1000 De Luxe sets for Madrid and 900 De Luxe sets for Paris. Stuttgart makes â‚ ¬ 411.700 in profits. Manchester can make all three sets, thus it supplies all the needs of Milton Keynes (600 professional, 800 De Luxe and 800 Weekender) as well as 100 De Luxe sets for Madrid and 1000 Weekender set for Madrid. Manchester unit makes â‚ ¬ 616.900 in profits. b) However, if in above scenario we deduct fixed costs from profits we find out that our Toulous e unit does not cover fixed costs. Therefore I would recommend closing down facility in Toulouse and transferring materials to Manchester to make demanded units there. If we have no possibility of transferring materials than we can fulfill our 80% obligation by transferring production of Weekender Sets to Manchester (we can not make them in Stuttgart) where we have surplus materials. We have to transfer production of De Luxe sets from Toulouse to Manchester as Stuttgart is close to limit in steel and can not accept 100 De Luxe sets more. We do not want to lower production of professional sets (they were not produced in Toulouse at all) as they carry the biggest profit margin if possible. If we lower production for De Luxe sets for

Compromise of 1850 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Compromise of 1850 - Essay Example While that statement had many different interpretations placed upon it, the Compromise of 1850, in part, would seek to address the issue of slavery. As for its definition, "The Compromise of 1850 was a series of five bills that were intended to stave off sectional strife. Its goal was to deal with the spread of slavery to territories in order to keep northern and southern interests in balance," (Kelly, p.1). For the young nation, the hope would be to equalize the relations between both the northern region, as well as the south and enable both sides to come to the same respective unity. The discussion over slavery, would remain one of the more potentially contentious portions of the proposed plan itself. In this case, "Of all the bills that made up the Compromise of 1850, the Fugitive Slave Act was the most controversial. It required citizens to assist in the recovery of fugitive slaves. It denied a fugitive's right to a jury trial. (Cases would instead be handled by special commisioners -- commisioners who would be paid $5 if an alleged fugitive were released and $10 if he or she were sent away with the claimant.) The act called for changes in filing for a claim, making the process easier for slave owners.

Design of Motor Speed Sampling, Amplification, Filtering and Display Essay

Design of Motor Speed Sampling, Amplification, Filtering and Display - Essay Example On the other hand, the display circuit performs digital functions by showing the alpha numeric digits. The distinctive design of the electronic circuits for the control of motor speed control and the subsequent display is the physical approach used in the creation of physical circuits that also check the variations in behavior of various electronic components with close reference to their working. Therefore, the required system is an effective remote controlled DC motor with a speed display on seven segments with the D type flip flop. This type of circuit can be categorically divided into two parts; the PWM generator and the IR transmitter. Additionally, there are a number of ways that the remote control can be used. However, we shall deploy the use common approach of the NE555 with the combination of various components in both modules as illustrated below: Particularly, 555 is widely used for the frequency oscillation and can be obtained through the different frequency range according to the need by changing its subsequent duty cycle. The first part of the circuit is generated by the PWM and this is the input of the second model. Conversely, the second model is responsible for the transmitting of wireless signals at a 38 kHz range. Noteworthy, duty cycles can be changed by the trimming of RV2 variable resistance while the D3 is the IR diodes transmit signals (Krishnan, 2010, p.7). On the other hand, the second circuit represents the response from the first circuit and it receives signals using the IR sensor. These signals are later converted to signals that result in the subsequent motion of the motor. Generally, this represents the remote control switch which is tasked with the conversion of low frequencies into significantly lower voltages between 2v to 5v. This concept is illustrated below: Functionally, Q2 is an IR sensor that receives the transmitter signals and switches the 2N2222A transistor. Therefore, the voltage

Compensation HR Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Compensation HR - Essay Example This is mainly used to determine which job should get a higher pay than the other. There are methods used in job evaluation such as job grading, job ranking and factor comparison. Job evaluation is advantageous as it helps to define a job according to an individual specialization so as to fix the fairest salary on it. Job evaluation analysis also helps when selecting a job that relates to the qualifications of an employee. Jobs are evaluated by ranking jobs. This is by evaluating a job using a single factor such as how technical a job is, or the educational level requires needed to perform the job effectively. The more technical a job and the higher the educational level required, the higher the job is ranked. Compensation is then based on the ranking where the highest in the rank is paid more (Poels and Frans 22). Salary surveys are normally used in job evaluation. This is by comparing a job with the same kind of job, with the same description and the same expectations in another organization in the job market. This helps in knowing how competitive the organization is as compared to other organizations. As a result of this survey, the ranges of salaries are normally revised as soon as the survey shows the need of a revision. This helps the organization stay competitive in the market. Compensation program is important in attracting and retaining talented employees. The program is normally done by the human resource manager. This is normally done together with the training and development officer. The aim of a training and development officer is to ascertain the performance of employees. This is so as to see if they have reached the set target of if they have improved in their performance. This helps the human resource manager department in efficiently administering the compensation program. Merit increase is given based on the performance of an employee where, if an employee performs better, they get a better compensation. There is

Century World Affairs Essay Example for Free

Century World Affairs Essay The Caribbean Island of Cuba became a republic after its liberation from Spain at the hands of the USA. American presence, both in military, financial and diplomatic terms however continued as a means of providing stability and solvency to the island nation. The Cuban President’s were incompetent and unpopular with the general populace, thus, producing revolt. From 1925 onwards, although technically still a democratic republic, the country became an elite dictatorship with an army officer named Fulgencio Batista, having seized control of the Cuban army, pulling the strings from behind the curtains. The government remained corrupt and incompetent with a rising sense of resentment amongst the general population on their state of affairs. Following 1940, he was the official President of the country until his departure from office in 1944. In 1952, he seized power again and ruled by decree until 1955 when he was elected President in an election with only himself as the candidate. To mark his victory, the new President issued an amnesty for political prisoners and opponents. One of the prisoners was Fidel Castro, who had been jailed for his involvement in the 26th of July incident in 1953, whereby he had led a column of men to ambush the Cuban military installations at the Moncada Barracks. Castro wasted no time in resuming his revolutionary activities and in 1956, accompanied by Argentine Ernesto â€Å"Che’ Guevara, launched an invasion of Cuba, setting sail with his followers from the coast of Mexico. Initially, the rebels were crushed by Batista’s forces but the well organized defense of the guerilla headquarters in the Sierra Maestra Mountains sent the wrong signals to Batista’s forces. Fledging support for the rebels also made matters worse with constant guerilla attacks against Cuban army installations and personnel leading to a fall in moral within the Cuban military ranks. With a demoralized army, Batista panicked as the prospect of a full fledged civil war became imminent and fled the country, allowing Castro to march easily into Havana and form government. America was deeply aligned with Batista’s government all along the way as American businesses had deep rooted interests in the island nation. There is evidence that Castro’s invasion of Cuba in 1956 could have been funded by the CIA, although these claims remain unsubstantiated. However, given the fact that Batista’s increasingly authoritarian actions were a cause of much embarrassment for democratic Washington, it could be believed that there might have been funding with an attempt to â€Å"tame† Batista and soften his dictatorial style. Major American involvement came in 1961, when Cuban exiles trained by the American CIA launched an invasion of Cuba to topple Castro’s government but were defeated at the hands of the Castro’s army within three days. This event came to be known as â€Å"the bay of pigs invasion†. The revolution survives till today having succeeded in the provision of idealistic social development targets, although the economy remains small and largely dependent on sugar cane exports. BOLIVIA After centuries of Spanish colonial rule, Bolivia gained independence and became an autonomous republic in 1825, having had to fight a bloody war with colonial Spain. While great leaps were made in socio economic development, the indigenous population remained poor and following the Chaco War (1932-1935) where the country suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of Paraguay, resentment against the traditional ruling class grew further as the loss of life and territory was humungous. Following the Chaco war, The Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR) was created. It represented the middle-class and had a Marxist approach modified for a nationalist and socialist agenda. The party was part of the military civilian regime of Gualberto Villarroel from 1943 to 1946 but was soon expelled from the country by opponent forces. The MNR then staged a brief and bloody civil war in 1949 against the Bolivian government but failed to make any breakthrough. It was in the elections of 1951, that the MNR finally hit jack pot. Having won the elections, it was denied the right to Presidency by the Opposition parties who claimed that the elections were rigged. Following months of protests, agitation and civil unrest, not to mention the various attempts by the MNR leadership to stage a coup, events took a new turn when MNR revolutionaries together with the La Paz police force took control of La Paz, the de facto capital of the country. What followed was a bloody, half hearted battle on the side of the Bolivian army. Mass deflections and poor moral gave the MNR a victory and a chance to form government. During its 12 years in power, the MNR was responsible for bringing universal adult suffrage to Bolivia, put land reforms into practice and promot rural education. The largest tin mines were nationalized in 1952. However, the most remarkable feat of the revolution was the fact that it incorporated the indigeneos population into the normal way of life. US policy remained largely neutral in Bolivia’s case. The US had war in the Korean Penensuila to deal with at that time. However, the overthrow of the MNR by the Bolivian army in 1964 is sometimes refered to as a CIA backed initiative, suggesting that American policy was largely anti MNR, even if neutral from the outset. CHILE Chile gained independence from colonial Spain in 1810, when it was established as an autonomus republic. It was in 1970 that Chile made history of sorts when it elected by a narrow margin a Marxist government under President Salvador Allende. Whereas all previous communist governments in the world had emerged from chaos and upheavel, the population of Chile legally elected their communist government. The government, however, comprised various left wing groups and Allende suffered from his inability to bring stakeholder conflict resolution. Allende’s problems intensified as he went along. His nationalization of major industries scared away private investment and created dissent amonsgt portions of the population. His problems were further aggravated by capitalist plots and US hostility, esp by the CIA. Allende still took matters at the forefront and continued reforms to the economy and the social sector, demanding international aid and recognition to help him implement his plan for the social and economic development of Chile along socialist lines. While he had many supporters, his opposition was also plenty. While Allende struggled to keep the pieces together in the face of internal coalition bickering, resent amongst portions of the population and US hostility, the opposition and the army merely hoped that Allende would lose the 1973 election and allow for a more centrist President to take power. However, this was not to be as Allende’s government survived the 1973 election, with millions amongst the population voting for Allende a second time. Following a constitutional crisis and widespread economic woes and allegations that Allende would soon turn the country towards dictatorship, the military intervened and overthrew his government on September 11, 1973. As a woman Revolutionary As a woman revolutionary in the Cuban revolution, one of the things I would have done differently would have been to secure closer ties with America for economic reasons, instead of becoming a tool in the cold war. Closer relations with America would not imply a compromise on Marxist principles. It would rather imply an act of logical sense as America is geograpgically close to Cuba and its products are in high demand there. Closer ties with the USSR and the East European Communist bloc make less sense as these countries were geographically distant. In a way, closer economic ties with the USSR have a higher opportunity cost. Appeal of Marxist thought in Latin America Marxist thought has had a profound effect on Latin American politics. As early as the 1920’s, Marxist movements were springing up in various countries. The reasons are simple. Rising poverty, deplorable conditions of the indigenous Indian population at the hands of the ruling class (of Spanish descent), economic and social backwardness and corrupt and/or incompetent governments forced people to seek alternative ways at addressing the issues at hand. It was these conditions that fueled Marxist thought in Latin America. For many countries, the concept of equality appealed further then ever as they saw the present system merely as an extension of the colonial system, with the capitalist mindset at play. Equality of income, rights and stature in society was a totally new concept and presented a welcome change from capitalist individualism. Lack of freedom under strict military governments and persecution at the hands of intelligence agencies as a result of political motivations made matters worse. Furthermore, Marxist ideology to seize the opportunity and to fight for ones right further fueled anger amongst an already resentful population. Revolution provided an opportunity for the hard pressed populace to vent their anger at incompetent governments. Another important factor at play was hostility to the USA. The USA was seen as a powerhouse of capitalism and US business interests in Latin America were no secret to the local population. The USA had done little to support the population against their incompetent leaders and the perception of the USA was thus that of a Capitalist agent bent on world dominance. The success of Marxism in the USSR esp. it’s powerful transition from a petty backward country to a world economic and military super power standing eye to eye with the USA provided much food for thought. With the exception of Cuba, communism never really found its deep roots in any country in Latin America. True the Allende Presidency in Chile, the MNR regime of Bolivia from 1952-1964 and the present day regime of Hugo Chavez in Venezuela are near examples, it is worth mentioning that these have been mere off shoots of Marxist theory, aiming to bring changes to the original theory and apply them in a more local context. Thus, generally, Marxist thought has provoked a more centre left approach amongst the population of Latin America. It is also worth mentioning that the impact of Marxist thought on Latin America has been so profound that many of the leading figures that the theory is synonymous with are derived from this region. Fidel Castro became a symbol of defiance for the Capitalist West. Allende is renowned for his foray into democracy through democratic elections, bring communism to a country through peaceful means Similarly, Che Guevara is today not only a symbol of communist ideals of using force to attain their goals but is also recognized as the undisputed founder of modern Guerrilla warfare, a tactic, still utilized by communists and non communists alike to this day in their fight against imperialism, capitalism and injustice. Works Cited Watson, Jack. Success in 20th Century World Affairs. London: John Murray, 1991. Adam Hart -Davis. World History – A visual guide. London: Longman , 2007. Smith, Alison. Mastering 20th Century World Affairs. London: Longman, 1991. Selected Readings from The History Channel Website www. Historychannel. com

How Photographic Depictions of Children have Changed

How Photographic Depictions of Children have Changed Jade Leslie With reference to the work of Higonnet and Holland, show how photographic depictions of children have changed over the last century. What are the strengths of photography as a medium for capturing the essence of childhood? Intro Photographic images provide us with a snapshot of the past and present, they hold past moment’s static for us to view even though they no longer exist. They provide us with visions of places and people we may never meet and fantasies, they are powerful for their seeming reality. Photography offers both reality and illusion. Photographs brings visual delight â€Å"†¦about the dream of childhood and its persistent nightmare† (Holland, 1992: 8). According to Higonnet (1998; 7) â€Å"pictures of children are†¦. the most sacred and the most controversial images of our time†. While they protect the ideal of childhood innocence images can also potential damage this ideal. Imagery is a vital part of social meaning they continuously provide viewers to new versions on subjects such as childhood (Holland, 2004). In this essay I will look at how imagery of children have changed in the last century, focusing on the debates of how innocence and sexuality and the changes and sim Image 1 Millais Cherry Ripe (1879) Julia Margaret Cameron Image 2 ‘I wait’ (1872) http://media.kunst-fuer-alle.de/img/36/g/36_67418~_sir-john-everett-millais_cherry-ripe,-1879.jpg http://thevictorianist.blogspot.co.uk/2010/10/julia-margaret-cameron.html All visual images of childhood innocence was invented and refined by paintings and illustrations from the 18th century to the early 20th century (Higonnet, 1998; 78). They were then transferred into photography. Paintings and illustrations of children allow us to really see perfect innocence, however photographs does this more convincingly (Higonnet, 1998; 86). The notion of the romantic childhood spread into popular painting such as Image 1 by Sir Everett Millais which has since been reprinted and used in advertisements of soap, during the time of production this was associated with cleanliness and purity (Holland, 2004). I included this image as I feel it is important to see how elements of earlier paintings are used in contemporary images of children. In Cherry Ripe the young girl is dressed in typical romantic children’s clothing which has been related to innocence (Higonnet, 1998; 51). All romantic children wear costumes and have connections with nature just like we see i n Cherry Ripe where the painting is set outdoors surrounding by nature and fruit. Julia Margaret Cameron ‘I wait’ displays angelic innocence depicted in early photography. Childhood innocence was viewed as sacred, pure and children are dressed in costumes of angels or cherubs to visualise this notion. Anne Geddes Image 3Image 4Image 5 http://villagewitchblog.files.wordpress.com/2013/10/68079-anne-geddes-baby-wallpapers-prints-desktop-wallpaper.jpg http://www.angusrobertson.com.au/calendar/betsy-cameron-angels/13600025/ We see a continuation of these themes in photographs by Anne Geddes. Her images represent a modern take of today’s idea of childhood innocence (image 3, 4 and 5). These images are what we commonly see on calendars and greeting cards. In these images the children are dressed in costumes, wearing angel wings, dressed in white and have connections with nature. They represent childhood as being pure, vulnerable, close to nature and precious to be nurtured and loved. Just as we see in images 1 and 2 they represent the idyllic childhood and unspoiled innocence. According to Higonnet (1998; 78) â€Å"†¦Geddes make children’s bodies unreal and belong to an unreal world†. Digital photography and new technology has allowed this and images now have no limitations. The children in Geddes images have a magical feel the children seem unreal without making them enticing or available. Higonnet (1998; 78) states that successful commercial images like this make the children s eem there and yet not there. Geddes photographs draw on childhood innocence just as earlier depictions of childhood by Julia Margaret Cameron (image 2) and paintings by Millais’s Cherry Ripe (1879 image 1) as they have similar themes in representing children as sacred in white clothing or dressed as angels and having connections with nature. Many of today’s commercial photographs of children have the same characteristics of those from the 19th century where children are dressed up or are angels, cherubs, fairies and miniature adults They remain similar with their â€Å"†¦romantic precedents†, centred on making children’s bodies look innocent (Higonnet, 1998; 76). They all conform to visual expectations of childhood. â€Å"They show us what we want childhood to be† (Higonnet, 1998; 86), if images go against this idealised romantic notion of children being fragile, innocence and pure it causes discomfort to viewer’s convention of childhood and causes controversy. The early 19th century photographs of cherub and angelic children continues to carry a powerful visual reference as the quintessence of childhood (Holland, 2004; 9). During the late 1980’s Sally Mann began to challenge the earlier ideas of the romantic childhood. Mann used her own children to represent her version of childhood. She captured their most vulnerable and natural moments, many of these photos contained them in the nude or semi-nude. Mann’s pictures displayed childhood in a natural form not the idealised versions from early images. Image 6 â€Å"Candy Cigarette† Sally Mann (1989)Image 7 â€Å"Jessie at five† Sally Mann (1987) http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/features/art-or-abuse-a-lament-for-lost-innocence-2078397.html http://lamblegs.wordpress.com/2010/05/25/sally-manns-immediate-family/ Image 6 and 7 captures how the children innocently play using simple props such as jewellery and candy cigarettes. On first glance this appears to be innocent however, they can also be a threat to the children in the form of potential sexuality. In image 6 Mann’s daughter balances a candy cigarette in her hand and resembles how an adult would hold it. Her facial expression, posture and the way her hair is parted on the side makes her look older than her years. The background of the photo is dark making Jessie stand out drawing you to focus directly at her. This picture has caused controversy due to the children mimicking adults and smoking. Children do mimic adults in their play. She is not smoking a real cigarette she is pretending. I feel this image displays how children are losing their innocence why also being innocent young girls enjoy trying out adult roles in their play scenarios (Holland, 2004) and are influenced by what they see in their daily lives. This image reflect the reality of how society affects children, they are copying actions what they see through media and their daily lives and are applying it to their play. In image 7 Jessie at five the central girl snakes outwards highlighting her naked torso, her pose has a sexual tone, she lures at the viewer, her shoulders are placed in an inviting way to show off her bare chest as if she is inviting you to go to her. She wears a pearl necklace, is made up with lipstick this makes her look like she is in her teens, or modelling for a fashion magazine. This conveys â€Å"†¦ conflicting messages of childhood innocence and adult sexuality† (Higonnet, 1998; 195), if you were unable to see her pre-pubescent body people could be easily confused to thinking she was older. Due to the posture and lack of clothing of Jessie, it suggests it could be sexually intended rather than children simply playing dress up. Jessie contrasts the two other girls pictured dressed in traditional clothing of childhood innocence. I feel that Mann’s work displays more realistic images of childhood than earlier images, children are not always angels and pure as suggest in the 19th century. Children enjoy experimenting playing adult roles and these images capture children doing precisely this. Mann’s work remains a subject of controversy due to the nude and provocative images of her children which aroused great critical debate as it challenged the romanticised essence of childhood (Scally, 2012). It has also been suggested that Mann is sexualising her own children putting them at risk of sexual exploitation. According to Zurbriggen et al (2003) Mann’s images make young children vulnerable. Savage (2011; 109) argues that Mann’s images has â€Å"†¦the ability to unnerve, to represent without apology, and to suggest the sensuality on childhood play and, perhaps inadvertently shatter the myth of innocence†. Supporter of Mann’s work argue that any sexual thoughts that arise from these images are a â€Å"†¦result of less-than-innocent readings† (Savage, 2011; 107). Mann has defended herself, stating that her work is natural through the eyes of a mother, since she has seen her children in every state: happy, sad, playful, sick, bloodied, angry and even naked. (Independent, 2010). According to Higonnet (1998; 203) Mann’s pictures upset cherished conventions of idyllic childhood. These images do not conform to the idealistic view of childhood they create discomfort as the go against social norms and unsettle traditional representations of childhood (Miller, 2005). In my opinion these two images. Something about child abuse. During the 1980’s childhood was under attack and was being pushed into adulthood by the mass media (Elkind, 1981; Postman, 1982). Many academics note that this was a time when childhood as we once knew it was lost. Postman (1983) argues that television and the use of children in advertising of clothing and adult products has influenced the disappearance of childhood as there has been a tendency to advertise children wearing clothing which resemble adult fashion, this is seen in image ? and ? Reference in hendrick chapter 2. Young girls have been increasing targeted by advertisements and it has been suggested it encouraged young girls to grow up too quickly and become sexually promiscuous (Linn, 2004; Schol, 2004). Boulton (2007) states that advertisements depict the child model as a ‘nascent adult’ Images ? and ? display the current culture of childhood depictions which have become increasing more sexualised. Popular images of little girls as alluring and seductive at once innocent and highly erotic are contained in the most respectable and mundane of locations, broadsheets, women’s magazines and television adverts. http://innewyorkparistomorrow.blogspot.co.uk/2011_01_01_archive.html http://live.drjays.com/index.php/2011/01/06/has-french-vogue-taken-child-models-too-far/ Images ? is from a French edition of Vogue magazine. The young model is photographed high heels, lots of jewellery and heavy makeup. She is placed upon leopard skin. She is dressed in adults clothes her pose is confident and serious she is not smiling. According to Boulton (2007) this is a sign of dominance, when children mimic this powerful look they convey a sense of adult-like self- awareness often associated with precocious sexuality. The most worrying part of this image in the title â€Å"Cadeaux† which is the French word for gifts, suggesting the model is a gift. Images like this with suggestive words have dangerous potential to exploit childhood by introducing adult sexuality into childhood innocence (Walkerdine, 1996; 326). What is seen as a fantasy for a young girl playing dress up can easily been transformed into a different fantasy for predatory adult men (Holland, 2004; 188). Children are increasingly subjected to social and economic forces that exploit them throug h the dynamics of sexualisation, commodification and commercialisation (Giroux, 2000; 44). Their innocence can often mask the sexualisation. The image of childhood innocence is now in jeopardy not just because it is being violated but because it was seriously flawed all along. The ideal of the child as object of adoration has turned too easily into the concept of the child as object and then into the marketing of the child as commodity (Direct quote, Hig, pg 194). Innocence feeds into enticing images of childlike purity as it simultaneously sexualises and markets such images (g, 60). Conclusion The image of childhood which was created in the 18th century has changed and has been replaced with new ideas and ways to picture childhood (Higonnet, 1998). Photographs have the ability to provide visual realism to a The notion of the disappearing child and the myth of childhood innocence often mirror and support each other. Within the myth of innocence children are often portrayed as inhabiting a world that is untainted, magical and utterly protected from the harshness of adult life (Giroux, 2000; 39). Innocence in this instance makes children invisible except as projections of adult fantasies (40). Bib Holland, P (1992) What is a Child? Popular Images of Childhood, London: Virago Press Miller, Andrea. Portrait of Family Values: Transgressions and Controversy in the Work of Sally Mann. Scally, P. (2012). In Context. Ethics and Visual Representation http://fir.ferris.edu:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/2323/2498/Phil_Scally_Ethics_2012.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed 15/04/14) Art or abuse?: A lament for lost innocence http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/features/art-or-abuse-a-lament-for-lost-innocence-2078397.html Tuesday 14 September 2010

Human Memory How reliable is Eyewitness Testimony

Human Memory How reliable is Eyewitness Testimony This essays attempts to reach a conclusion regarding eyewitness testimonies and the extent of its reliability. This was done by identifying factors in three different processes stages. The acquisition stage is the period where the witness experiences the event. The retention stage is the period between the time the event ends and the time the witness are asked for a recount or questioned about the event. The retrieval stage is the period where the witness is providing information from their recall. During the acquisition stage, research regarding exposure time, estimation of factors concerning the event (for example, time), violence of the event, weapon focus and witness stress was analysed. During the retention stage, research regarding post-event information, introduction of conflicting information and introduction of misleading information was analysed. During the retrieval stage, research regarding method of questioning, leading questions and a case study of an actual event was analysed. Experiments and case studies regarding these factors were then evaluated to weigh the impact that it had on eyewitness testimony. In conclusion, it was found that experiments regarding eyewitness testimony hold little evidence to support its reliability but there are also some findings that dispute this. Thus, it was concluded that it is reliable only to a small extent though it can be highly accurate under certain conditions. Applications of this conclusion includes jurors being more aware of the factors regarding eyewitness testimony and taking into account when deciding on a verdict especially if the main evidence is based solely on eyewitness recounts. Eyewitness testimony is usually a verbal account given by an individual who has experienced an event, typically of a crime. Eyewitness testimony relies heavily on the capability of the individuals to accurately recount the event. In a trial, the jury is most often persuaded due to the statement(s) of the witnesses. Also, in cases where little material evidence can be collected, eyewitnesses are the focus for reaching a verdict. It has been argued that because testimonies are largely based on fallible memory which can be influenced by a variety of factors, it should not be depended upon. The contention of this essay is to identify and evaluate the extent of accuracy of this claim by identifying and evaluating factors that affect memory and by reviewing experiments and case studies to reach a conclusion on this matter. Memory and thus eye-witness reliability has become an issue of importance due to the high percentage of errors in identifying and prosecuting accused individuals. Thus, the reliability of eyewitness testimonies and impact on trials should be reviewed. Memory is defined as a kind of repository in which facts (information) may be retained over some period of time (Loftus, 1979). According to the Atkinson and Shiffrin model of memory storage (1971), memory is made up of three different types of information stores, each with different duration, capacity and function. The first is Sensory Memory. This type of store lasts for the spilt second when individuals collect information from their sensory systems and preserves information in its original sensory form. The sense organs are limited in their ability to store information about the world in an unprocessed way for more than a second. Thus, information is filtered through or selected by attention for further memory processing into the next type of memory store. This process of experiencing and filtering information is called acquisition. The next memory store is Short-term memory allows individuals to retain information long enough to be used and lasts approximately between 15 to 30 s econds. Miller (1956, cited in Weiten, 2005) proposed that Short-term Memory had a capacity of about 7 chunks of information. If certain actions are carried out, the information will be transferred to the last type of memory store, Long-term Memory. Long-term Memory provides retention of information which can last between minutes to a lifetime and has a limitless capacity. The process of information deposited in the short-term and long-term memory store is called retention. Information is constantly being transferred between these stores. When witnesses are asked to give recount of what they witnessed, information is taken from the long-term memory store and this process is called retrieval. Events during these three processes may affect the quality of the eyewitness testimony. During the acquisition process information may not have been perceived in the first place, information may be forgotten or interfered during the retention process or information may be inaccessible during questioning or during the retrieval process. Analysis of Factors that may affect Eye-witness Testimony during the Acquisition Process During the acquisition process, there are a number of factors that can affect an eyewitness report of an event such as exposure time or stress. This can be divided into event factors and witness factors. This section of the essay will evaluate the effect of these factors on the reliability of eyewitness testimony. Exposure time to the event or object of focus is an event factor. Laughery et al (1971, cited in Loftus, 1979) tested subjects on their recall based on the exposure time to a picture, showed one at a time of different positions of a human face. Two Caucasian male target faces were used, one with fair-colored hair and complexion with glasses and another with a darker-colored hair and complexion without glasses. The independent variable is the time the subjects viewed the pictures, which ranged from ten seconds to thirty-two seconds. The subjects were them asked, approximately eight minutes after exposure to identify the target within a series of 150 slides of human faces. The dependant variable is the accuracy of the subjects recall. Fifty-eight percentof the subjects who viewed the pictures for thirty-two seconds correctly identified the target but only forty-seven percent of the subjects who viewed the pictures for ten seconds correctly identified the target. This suggests that the more time a witness has to view the target, the more accurate their recall will be. This research is significant as it is very scientific and precisely tested a specific variable that affects memory and recall. Although this is so, it was also conducted in an artificial environment and thus, has low ecological validity. The research may also contain cultural and gender bias as it only tested for Caucasian males as the target. Thus, its application to targets of different cultures or gender is questionable. Estimating factors such as time, speed or distance is often asked of eyewitnesses. This involves perceiving the event and accurately inferring information from it. Marshalls (1966, cited in Loftus, 1979) experiment tested subjects estimation of time. Four hundred and ninety-one subjects watched a forty-two second film and a week after they had given their written and oral reports of the event, they were questioned as to the duration of the event. On average, subjects gave an estimate of about ninety seconds. The results show that witnesses can inaccurately estimate certain factors of an event. Although the results are significant, the study was conducted in a controlled environment which gives it little ecological validity. To further assess the accuracy of this study, an additional study that can be considered is Buckhout et al. (1975, cited in Loftus, 1979)s study on the effects if eyewitness testimony in a real situation by staging an attack where a student attacked a professor in front of 141 witnesses. The attack lasted for thirty-four seconds but when interviewed later on, the average estimate of the duration of the event was eighty-one seconds, almost twice the actual time. This study supports Marshalls study which shows that there is a tendency for witnesses to overestimate the duration in an event. This is significant in most cases, especially for cases of self-defense where the time between the attack and the retaliation is very significant in the categorization of the action. Another event factor is the violence of the event. A research done by Clifford and Scott (1978, cited in Loftus, 1979) investigated the ability of eyewitnesses to perceive violent and non-violent events. Forty-eight subjects with equal number of men and women watched either one of two tapes. In the non-violent version, the characters were involved in a verbal exchange and weak restraining movements. In the violent version, one of the characters physically assaults another character. In an effort to be even, the start and end of the tapes were manipulated to be identical. It was found that regardless of gender, the level of recall is significantly lower for those who viewed the more violent tape. It is inferred that this is due to the greater amount of stress that is produced in response to the violent event. This shows that eyewitness testimony of a violent event should be considered with the possibility of a higher rate of inaccuracy. Though the results are significant due to the hi gh reliability of the scientific method used, it also lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in an artificial environment where witnesses do not actually experience the event. An event factor that is linked to the witness factor, stress, is weapon focus. Easterbrook (1959) found that under high stress, individuals tend to concentrate more on a few features of their environment and less attention to other features. Weapon focus is where a crime victim is faced with an assailant who is brandishing a weapon. This rises the stress level of the crime victim and thus, they will only concentrate on a few features, mainly the weapon and will have trouble recollecting other factors such as the assailants features. Loftus et al (1987) tested this with an experiment where thirty-six students were showed a series of slides which showed one of two scenarios at a fast food restaurant. Half the subjects saw a customer pointing a gun at the cashier while the other half, the control group saw a customer handing the cashier a check. A part of the experiment tested the memory of the students based on a series of seven questions on the customer. It was found that the level of accuracy of the weapon group was fifty-six percent while the level of accuracy for the control group was sixty-seven percent. As the results show that the accuracy level of the weapon group is lower than the control group, this is highly significant in showing that eye-witnesses acquisition process might be seriously hampered by the presence of a weapon. The results of the experiment are highly valid as it was conducted in a controlled environment which allowed a direct cause and effect outcome. While this is so, the participants did not experience the event and thus their response may be different to an actual witness which means that the experiment lacks ecological validity. During an event, stress is a witness factor that should be taken into account. This refers to the level of stress or fear that a witness experiences which may influence their perception during the acquisition process of the event. A simulated case study done by Berkun (1962, cited in Loftus, 1979) placed army recruits in a stressful situation. They were isolated with the exception of a telephone link. Then, they were told that they were in danger to induce anxiety and were required to repair a broken radio by following a series of complicated instructions. It was found that the high level of anxiety impaired performance of the subjects. As this case study was conducted during a period of different ethical standards than today, there are ethical implications to be considered. Nevertheless, the results of this case study significantly support the Yerkes-Dodson law (1908, cited in Green) which states that emotional arousal facilitates learning and performance up to a point after which t here is a decrement. This can be applied to eyewitnesses who experience stress. Their senses may be stimulated but after a point, their acquisition process will be negatively affected. Although this is so, this case study has only looked at male soldiers, thus when applied to the general population, it lacks ecological validity. Analysis of Factors that may affect Eye-witness Testimony during the Retention Process Eye-witnesses are being tested on their retention of information from their Long-term Memory. Because retained information and thus, memory is being transferred between memory stores, it is possible that it can be influenced, enhanced or even distorted during or in between transfers. This section of the essay will focus on the numerous researches that have been carried out to investigate the accuracy of this or the extent of the influence that may occur. After an event occurs, sometimes witnesses discuss what they saw with each other and the information that is exchanged can result in an enhancement of memory in the form of modification or addition. An experiment was conducted by Loftus (1975) on one hundred and fifty participants. They were showed a film of a car crash where a car failed to stop at a stop sign and turned right to enter traffic, causing a five-car collision. After the film which lasted for less than a minute, participants were asked a series of ten questions. Half of the participants were asked about the stop sign in the first question while the other half were asked about the right turn. All other questions were the same. The independent variable here is the first question and the dependant variable is the last question which asked participants if they remembered seeing a stop sign. Loftus found that there was a higher percentage of participants who recalled seeing a stop sign if the first question related to a stop sign than the control group, fifty-three percent and thirty-five percent respectively. This shows that by mentioning an object, there is a higher chance of it being recalled. The results are highly significant as it was calculated using precise results with a specific variable tested. It can be argued that the experiment lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in an artificial environment but this allowed a specific variable to be tested which would have been impossible with a case study. As demonstrated by this experiment, eye-witnesses memory may be influenced by post-event information that they receive and thus, the more information that the witness is exposed to after the event, the higher the chance that their memory might be compromised. A modification to the previous variable is the question as to what happens when a witness learns new information which is different from what they experienced. Loftus (1975) conducted an experiment where forty participants were shown a three-minute video which involved a group of eight demonstrators noisily interrupting a lecture. The participants then had to answer a series of twenty questions. All the questions for the participants were identical except for one. Half of the participants were asked, Was the leader of the twelve demonstrators who entered the classroom a male? and the other half were asked, Was the leader of the four demonstrators who entered the classroom a male? All questions had to be answered with a yes or no. A week later, participants had to answer another set of questions. The critical question was How many demonstrators did you see enter the classroom? It was found that participants who previously answered the question with the word twelve reported an average of 8.9 demonstrators while the other half reported an average of 6.4 demonstrators. It can be argued that this experiment lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in an artificial environment and that participants only viewed the event and did not actually witness it. The results may not be fully applicable to the general population. Although this is so, the controlled environment showed a direct cause and effect of a specific variable. The results of this experiment can be applied to eye-witness testimony where witnesses may be mislead in their testimony as their memory might be compromised by the introduction of conflicting information. Similar to the experiment above is an experiment conducted by Loftus and Zanni (1975, cited in Hill, 1998) which was a modification of the original Loftus and Palmer research. The aim of the experiment was to investigate the effect of adding post event information on memory. Participants were shown a film of a car accident after which they had to answer a series of questions. Half of the participants were required to answer, Did you see the broken headlight which implied that there was a broken headlight while the other half were asked, Did you see a broken headlight which only required participants to recall if it was there. It was found that half of the participants, who were asked using the word the, incorrectly reported seeing a broken headlight. As most of the other variables were controlled in the experiment, and only a specific variable was changed, the results signify that memory can be modified by post event information. It can be argued that the participants did not experie nce the incident and thus the experiment lacks ecological validity when applied to actual witnesses but as a specific variable was examined, it can be concluded that the cause and effect was to a large extent connected. This experiment shows that eyewitnesses may be influenced by post event information which may negatively affect their account. McCloskey and Zaragaza (1985) also conducted experiments concerning the effect of misleading post event information on participants. After watching a series of slides depicting an event, participants received a narrative of the event. Participants in the mislead condition will receive a narration with receive the narrative with misleading information about a detail of the event, a hammer was referred to as a screwdriver instead while the control group werent provided details of the specific event. Participants then had to answer a series of questions about the event. The critical question concerning the tool had the original item as an option (hammer) and a new item (wrench). It was found that accuracy for the control group was seventy-five percent and seventy-two percent for the mislead condition group. The fact that there was little difference between the two groups points to the idea that misleading post event information does not distort memory of an event. This experiment suppor ts the validity of eyewitness testimony and due to the controlled setting; the results are highly valid though it lacks ecological validity. Analysis of Factors that may affect Eye-witness Testimony during the Retrieval Process Most evidence from eyewitnesses are a result of their accounts of the event. This involves the retrieval process of information from their long term memory store. This section of the essay aims to analyse and evaluate research conducted in relation to the techniques of retrieving information from eyewitnesses such as question wording or method of questioning. This is to evaluate the extent of influence of such techniques on the reliability of eyewitness accounts and in relation, memory. The method of questioning during the retrieval process plays an important role in the accuracy of eye-witness testimony as investigated by Lipton (1977, cited in Wells, 1978). Lipton conducted an experiment where participants watched a film of a murder in a courtroom setting. He found that unstructured testimony which allowed free recall resulted in ninety-one percent accuracy. This is a significant value as compared to other types of questioning such as open ended questions with eighty-three percent accuracy, leading questions with seventy-two percent accuracy and multiple choice questions with fifty-six percent accuracy. These results show that the type of questioning that the witness is subjected to affects the accuracy of their recount. When applied to trial testimonies, jurors should take into account the type of questioning to predict or get an idea of the level of accuracy of the testimony. Though conclusive to a certain extent, the experiment lacks ecological validity as the participants did not actually experience the event, merely perceive it but as it is a controlled environment, the reliability of the cause and effect factors is high. Loftus and Palmer (1974 cited in Hill, 1998) carried out an experiment to investigate the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of participants in recalling a car crash. Fourty-five participants were separated into seven groups and each group watched a video of traffic accidents. The videos lasted from five to thirty seconds. After watching the video, participants had to give an account of what they had just seen. The independent variable is the question About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?. The word hit is replaced with the words smashed, contacted, bumped and collided for different groups. The participants answer as to the estimate of the cars speed is the dependant variable. Loftus and Palmer found that the mean estimate of speed for more aggressive words such as smashed is higher than less aggressive words such as contacted. The results are highly significant, p Contending the results of this experiment is Yuille and Cutshalls (1986) case study of a real life event. 13 participants were interviewed using Loftus and Palmers (1974 cited in Hill, 1998) technique in their recall four to five months after witnessing an attempted robbery in daylight where one individual was killed and another, seriously wounded. It was found that there was a very high level of similarity between the accounts given by the witnesses, the accounts did not alter in response to leading questions and that the witnesses were able to recall the event in detail. Additionally, accounts of those who were more distressed had a higher accuracy level. These results are different to Loftus and Palmer (1974 cited in Hill, 1998). The eye witnesses did not alter their accounts greatly in response to leading questions. As this is a case study, it holds high ecological validity unlike laboratory experiments. Although this may be true, Yuille and Cutshalls case study was of an event t hat was relatively traumatic event and was viewed in ideal conditions. Most incidents do not mirror this setting. Also, it was an investigation of only one case study. Hence, the application of these findings is debatable when applied to general eye witness testimonies. Conclusion This essay evaluated the extent of accuracy of the claim that eyewitness testimony should not be depended upon. This was done by focusing on the different factors that can affect human memory, and in relation, eyewitness testimony as it is fundamentally based on memory. Experiments and case studies related to factors in three different memory stages were identified and evaluated. Research concerning the acquisition process such as exposure time, estimation of factors concerning the event, for example, time, violence of the event, weapon focus and witness stress level during the event was analysed. Results point to a correlation of high levels of inaccuracy when more traumatic factors are included in the event. This is also reflected in research concerning the retention process and the retrieval process although there is some evidence that supports the reliability of eyewitness testimony. Overall analysis criticised the low ecological validity of controlled experiments but also supported the high level of validity that comes with it as it essentially provides a cause and effect relationship between specific variables tested. Case studies were found to be very specific with regards to certain factors, which leads to a debate about their general application. Since experiments are only replications of real-life events, it cant be fully taken as the actual process . This may have some influence on the results obtained as it can be argued that the participants are not really experiencing the event, thus essential factors like, atmosphere, or even interest in the event may be compromised. In this manner, results of case studies hold a higher level of reliability. As indicated by the numerous researches on different factors during the process of collecting, processing and retrieving information from memory, eye witness testimony is reliable only to a small extent. Under such fallibility, it can be questioned if eyewitness testimony should be relied on at all. Though eyewitness testimony has been proved accurate in a number of researches, the amount of investigations concluding on the fact that it is highly imperfect far outweighs it. Though a large number of researches do not support the reliability of eyewitness testimony, there is also evidence to support it like Yuille and Cutshalls (1986) case study. This suggests that although eyewitness testimony can be unreliable, under certain conditions, it is highly accurate. Implications for application of the analysis in this essay could include jurors being more wary of eyewitness testimony and the conditions relating to it when deciding upon a verdict. Further research could include more case studies to increase the ecological validity of the theories produced by experiments analysed in this essay. References Atkinson, R. C. Shriffin, R. M. (1971), The Control Processes of Short-term Memory, Stanford, California, Stanford University Easterbrook J. A. (1959), The Effect of Emotion on Cue Utilisation and the Organisation of Behaviour, Psychological Review, Vol 66(3), 183-201 Green, C. D, (n.d.) Classics in the History of Psychology Yerkes and Dodson (1908), Toronto, Ontario, York University, Retrieved from psychclassics.yorka.ca: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Yerkes/Law/ Hill, G. (1998), Oxford Revision Guides, AS A Level Psychology, New York, Oxford University Press Loftus, E. F; Loftus, G. R; Messo, J. (1987), Some facts about Weapon Focus, Law and Human Behaviour, Vol 11(1), 55-62 Loftus, E. F. (1975), Leading Questions and the Eyewitness Repost, Cognitive Psychology, Vol 7, 550-572, University of Washington Loftus E. F. (1979), Eyewitness Testimony, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England, USA, Harvard University Press Yullie J. C. Cutshall J. L. (1986), A case study of eyewitness memory of a crime, Journal of Applied Psychology, Volume 71(2), May 1986, 291-301 Weiten, W. (2005), Psychology: Themes and Variations, The United States of America, Thomson Learning Inc. Wells, G. L. (1978), Applied Eyewitness-Testimony Research: System Variables and Estimator Variables, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Volume 36, No. 12, 1547-1557, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada

holocaust :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ruth Moses was one of the children that went through the holocaust. She was born in 1935 in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. In Frankfurt am Main many things occurred. Ruth was one of the children of Berta and Hugo Moses, which was one of the important Jewish centers. In January 30, 1933, the Nazi’s rose to power. As Ruth got older and older more and more bad things occurred in her homeland.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the nineteenth century Frankfurt was a cultural center of the Jewish Enlightment, it played an important role in commerce, industry, and banking. From 1817 to 1930 the population of Jews rose from 3,300 to 30,000, so this place was one of the largest Jewish centers. After the nazi’s rise to power in 1933 Jews were subject to physical assaults, boycotts and they were transferred to nazi ownership. Through March to October about 536 Jewish enterprises were closed. During the time when Ruth Moses was born about forty five hundred Jewish people were in need of help, which was 20 percent of the Jewish population. When Moses was six years old she was deported off to a sealed off ghetto in the city of Riga with another 2,000 Jews from Frankfurt. The ghetto had not enough food for all the Jews, bad sanitation, and over crowdedness. Thousands of Jews died of starvation, disease and exposure. Soon enough they were able to return to Frankfurt but were not allowed back into their homes because they were sealed by the police they were only put in private homes and in schools. Most of the inhabitants in Riga were gassed to death in transport vans or were shot or were sent in labor camps where they would work to death. In 1938 five large synagogues and prayer houses were burned down. Gangs would riot roaming the streets, ransacking and destroying Jewish stores and also killing. They also started to arrest Jews in their homes, on the streets and in the railway stations. On November 1938 to May 1939 about 15,000 Jews were leaving Frankfurt. By the end of September 1941, the total number of Jews had gone down 10,592. The police were able to transfer hundreds of Jewish apartments into German control. In about March 1941 Jews were put on forced labor and this too was under Gestapo officer’s supervision. Afterwards about 715 Jews committed suicide in Frankfurt.

The Consumption of Alcohol and its Effects on the Body :: Alcohol Health Drug Abuse Essays

The Consumption of Alcohol and its Effects on the Body Alcohol, probably the oldest drug known, has been used at least since the earliest societies for which records exist. Of the numerous types of alcohol, ethyl alcohol is the type consumed in drinking. In its pure form it is a clear substance with little odor. People drink alcohol in three main kinds of beverages: BEERS, which are made from grain through brewing and fermentation and contain from 3% to 8% alcohol; WINES, which are fermented from fruits such as grapes and contain from 8% to 12% alcohol naturally, and up to 21% when fortified by adding alcohol; and distilled beverages (spirits) such as WHISKEY, GIN, and VODKA, which on the average contain from 40% to 50% alcohol. Drinkers may become addicted to any of these beverages. Physical Effects of Alcohol The effects of alcohol on the human body depend on the amount of alcohol in the blood (blood-alcohol concentration). This varies with the rate of consumption and with the rate at which the drinker's physical system absorbs and metabolizes alcohol. The higher the alcohol content of the beverage consumed, the more alcohol will enter the bloodstream. The amount and type of food in the stomach also affect the absorption rate. Drinking when the stomach is filled is less intoxicating than when it is empty; the foods in the stomach, which contain fat and protein, delay alcohol absorption. Body weight is also a factor; the heavier the person, the slower the absorption of alcohol. After alcohol passes through the stomach, it is rapidly absorbed through the walls of the intestines into the bloodstream and carried to the various organ systems of the body, where it is metabolized. Although small amounts of alcohol are processed by the kidneys and secreted in the urine, and other small amounts are processed through the lungs and exhaled in the breath, most of the alcohol is metabolized by the liver. As the alcohol is metabolized, it gives off heat. The body metabolizes alcohol at about the rate of three-fourths of an ounce to one ounce of whiskey an hour. Technically it is possible to drink at the same rate as the alcohol is being oxidized out of the body. Most people, however, drink faster than this, and so the concentration of alcohol in the bloodstream keeps rising. Alcohol begins to impair the brain's ability to function when the blood-alcohol concentration (BAC) reaches 0.

Virtues Of My Life: Order, Courage, Patience :: essays research papers

Virtues of My Life: Order, Courage, Patience In order to survive in 1996, there need to be at least some standards and goals of morality in a person's life. Moral excellence is definitely hard to achieve, but is definitely something to attempt. Personally, there are many distractions and obstructions the present day provides, creating a difficulty of direction in my own life. I need to overcome obstacles such as peer pressure in order to become a confident, successful person. The present day provides impediments which I believe I can overcome by way of morality and virtue. Order, courage, patience, and faith are all virtues necessary for personal achievement in my life. The first virtue I have chosen is order. In agreement with Russell Kirk, I also believe that "order is the path we follow, or the pattern by which we live with purpose and meaning." Order is something that directs in our everyday lives, a working condition we cannot live without. Without order there is chaos, and with chaos there is room for little virtue. Order is important because it provides life with stability and direction. As an example of a personal order, the school schedule which governs my academic studies is a type of order, setting specifics of where and when I should be. Order helps in my life if I am able and willing to create a schedule for each day, specifically stating when I should be doing what. If I can achieve order in my own life, worries and concerns will be eliminated by means of order that will easily become habit. Russell Kirk also states, "Order is the first need of the soul. It is not possible to love what one ought to love, unless we recognize some principles of order by which to govern ourselves." Because of the needs of our soul, I again agree with Russell Kirk that religion, morality itself, and our everyday feelings are derivatives of order. Nothing can be achieved without some sort of order, but we must first recognize that the things we desire can be achieved only by gaining order. Order is truly the first need of human life. Courage is the second virtue I have chosen. Courage is a virtue needed to conquer fear or despair. The virtue of courage is important because it can be applied in numerous situations. If people possess courage, they can be strong and stable in situations where they might feel uncomfortable. Since there are many things in life which are stressful and unfamiliar, such as apprehension of the first day on a job, first day at a new school, or what you

Models of Writing

Writing can be an intimidating task.   Many people of all ages will admit to avoiding and even fearing the writing process.   For some reason, the task seems daunting, so methods have been adapted to help ease the process for those that struggle. The five step writing process is typically composed of some derivation of the following steps:   prewriting, planning, drafting, revising, and proofreading.   These steps are widely taught in classrooms from the elementary school level through post graduate work.   The depth of each level is the thing that differs as writers grow and mature. Similar essay: Principles of Good Writing by L.A. Hill Summary The prewriting phase involves the production of ideas and even strategies for later writing of the essay.   This can include using one of many types of graphic organizers such as bubble charts or outlining techniques.   It can also be less organized like brainstorming lists or even random thoughts.   The prewriting phase is a time to explore all facets of an idea without judging or commitment.   During this phase, the writer will find a topic and create his questions for research.   In conducting his research, whether it be formal or informal, he will discover the answers to his questions. Thus the next sequential stage of writing is the planning stage.   Here the writer accumulates all of the information necessary and begins to sort it into categories.   This coincides with the text’s second step of finding and evaluating information from various sources.   Here the writer is still gather information without being certain exactly which he will use. These first two steps correlate with McQuinn and Roach’s first step in their writing process which is the idea step.   According to their website, â€Å"ideas are the heart of the message, the content of the piece, the main theme, together with the details (documented support, elaboration, anecdotes, images) that enrich and develop that theme by building understanding or holding a reader's attention.†Ã‚   Here the writer comes up with the central focus of his work and gather information to support it.   This information may be anecdotal, research-oriented, observed or simply created.   The ideas are important to the process because they allow for wide-ranging creativity from the writer. The third step in the general writing process is drafting.   The text suggests taking notes from the sources and making a formal outline.   It is at this point that the final decisions are made as to what information should be included.   It is important to note that a draft is not a final copy.   Many students of writing make that mistake.   The drafts are sometimes a type of trial and error routine.   Several drafts may be necessary before the writer becomes satisfied with the content of the essay. This stage correlates with the organization stage of McQuinn and Roach.   They note that organization is the â€Å"internal structure† of a piece which includes is central message and the flow of ideas seamlessly from one to another.   This particular process offers that a well-organized piece of writing will begin with a strong opening and conclude with a powerful conclusion, with many developed and stimulating ideas in between.   Of course the writer will have had to already choose his content in order to accomplish this type of structure in his writing. After the drafting stage, the writer must undertake the process of revising.   The revision stage is one that involves many steps.   The paper must be examined for its content, its logical progression, its flow of ideas, its choice of words, phrasing, and overall impact.   The revising stage is much like the drafting stage because each revision is simply a new draft.   Until the revision stage is complete, the drafting stage is not. McQuinn and Roach’s fourth and fifth area are called word choice and sentence fluency.   These two ideas are key to the revision process.   Word choice has to do with, as the name suggests, the careful choosing of the most perfect words to express meaning.   Sentence fluency is the smoothness and fluidity with which the sentences in the writing roll seamlessly from one to another. According to McQuinn and Roach, â€Å"word choice is the use of rich, colorful, precise language that moves and enlightens the reader. It is the love of language, a passion for words, combined with a skill in choosing words that creates just the right mood, impression, or image in the heart and mind of the reader.†Ã‚   To accomplish this is to really wrestle with words until the most perfect choices are made.   Likewise, sentence fluency focuses on the sounds of the sentences.   This forces the writer to consider sound devices such as rhyme, alliteration, creative phrasing, sentence structure, complexity and length.   The sentences will read, in some cases, like music. Finally, the writer has achieved a focused, organized and creatively crafted piece.   He has one more step to complete.   This step is the revision step.   This step demands that the writer proofread his paper to ensure that the conventions of the English language are followed.   This gives the writer and the writing legitimacy.   The reader recognizes that his writing will be more powerful if it is also correct in its use of punctuation, usage, spelling and other such conventions.   While proofreading may be less creative than the stylistic drafting of the piece, it is nevertheless a vital step in the whole of the writing process. While most process driven models of writing end here, the McQuinn and Roach model includes another area.   This area is that of voice.   They note that voice is the heart and soul of a piece, the magic, the wit. It is the writer's unique and personal expression emerging through words. Voice is the presence of the writer on the page. When the writer's passion for the topic and concern for the audience are strong, the text dances with life and energy, and the reader feels a strong and intimate connection to both the writing and the writer. Voice is a more abstract tenet of writing, one that is harder to explain and harder yet to produce. Voice pervades all writing, but not all voice is unique or engaging or even literate.   Many writers take years to produce a recognizable voice.   Some students never learn it.   However, voice is the quality that separates adequate and good writing from great and enlightened writing, yet it is the most elusive quality of all. The process described in the text and the process designed by McQuinn and Roach have many structural similarities.   They both depend on good ideas, organization, drafting, revising and proofreading.   However, the McQuinn and Roach model go beyond this to demand an element of uniqueness, of style, from the writers.   This style is very difficult to teach.   For this reason, it is much more difficult to use. A student of writing would find the text much easier to follow.   The steps are well-defining, and a student who carefully follows them will produce a good piece of writing.   The steps are easy to repeat and practice, and they can be applied to many situations. However, a student who has mastered this type of writing and desire another level to his work will find McQuinn and Roach an excellent step in this direction.   While the tutorial on their website cannot guarantee that one will become a stylist, it gives a mature writer more dimensions with which to experiment in his writing.   Word choice, sentence fluency and voice are all components of this dimension.   Merely good writing can exist without them, but great writing can only emerge with them.   Thus, the user-friendliness of these two models will depend on the level of adequacy that the writer has achieved. References McQuinn, C. & Roach, M.   The Writing Process. WORDSMITH A GUIDE to College Writing 3RD EDITON